Islam and Man: From the Results of Contemporary Reading by Muhammad Shahrur

Summary of the Book "Islam and Man: From the Results of Contemporary Reading" by Muhammad Shahrur

Introduction to the Book and its Author

The book "Islam and Man: From the Results of Contemporary Reading" by the Syrian researcher and thinker Dr. Muhammad Shahrur is considered one of the most prominent intellectual works that sparked widespread debate in Arab and Islamic cultural and religious circles. Published in 2016 by Dar al-Saqi in Beirut, the book comprises approximately 207-208 pages. It received significant acclaim, winning the Sheikh Zayed Book Award in its eleventh cycle (2017) in the category of "Development and State-Building."

Muhammad Shahrur (1938-2019) was a Syrian thinker who held a doctorate in civil engineering. He began studying the Quran in 1970 and is now considered a key reference in Quranic sciences, having developed a new and scientific approach to their understanding. His other works include: "The State and Society," "Islam and Faith: The System of Values," "Towards New Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence," and "Drying Up the Sources of Terrorism." Through his theses, Shahrur aims to end what he calls "the servitude of the Muslim individual to the ancient alliance between religious and political authorities."

The book represents a comprehensive attempt to reconcile the religion of Islam with modern philosophy, as well as a deeply rational perspective on the natural sciences. It comes within the broader context of Shahrur's intellectual project, which calls for setting aside the heritage and starting from the foundational text of the religion, which is the Book of God.

Methodology: The Principle of Tarteel and the Refusal of Synonymy

In his book, Shahrur adopts a specific methodology he calls "Tarteel" (arrangement/sequential recitation), which forms the backbone of his contemporary reading of the Quranic text.

The Concept of Tarteel

According to Dr. Shahrur, Tarteel means "arranging the various verses addressing a single topic, found in different chapters, into a coherent system." This means that Shahrur does not read Quranic verses in isolation but gathers verses discussing the same subject from various surahs of the Quran and organizes them within a single context to understand the Quranic intent in a holistic manner. Thus, Tarteel, according to Shahrur, is not merely recitation but a method of understanding and reflection that reconstructs the Quranic text in light of its recurring themes.

Refusal of Synonymy

Alongside Tarteel, Shahrur adopts the principle of refusing synonymy in understanding the texts of the Book of God. He refutes the idea that there are synonymous words carrying the exact same meaning in the Quran. Every word in the Quran carries a specific and distinct connotation not found in others. This principle leads him to redefine many fundamental Islamic terminologies. He also relies on interpreting the texts of the Book through each other, rather than relying on traditional exegeses that may have deviated from the original Quranic intent.

Chapter One: Who are the Muslims?

In the first chapter, Shahrur poses a central question: "Who are the Muslims?" While seemingly straightforward, Shahrur offers an unconventional answer reflecting his reformist vision.

Islam as a Universal Religion, Not Confined to Muhammad ﷺ

Shahrur presents a series of historically sequential Quranic verses to argue that Muslims are the followers of all religions that believe in God, the Last Day, and do righteous deeds, not just the followers of the Prophet Muhammad's message. In his view, "Islam" is not the specific name of the religion brought by Muhammad ﷺ but is a description of anyone who submits their face to God—i.e., surrenders to God's will—which includes all prophets, messengers, and their followers.

Shahrur connects "Islam" with "submission" to God, pointing to the occurrence of these terms in the Quran in various contexts, citing the story of Noah and other prophets.

Defining Islam: Belief in God, the Last Day, and Righteous Action

Shahrur defines Islam as "belief in God, the Last Day, and righteous action." This definition broadens the scope of Islam to include all who believe in God and the Last Day and do good deeds, regardless of their religious or sectarian identity. Righteous action, in his view, is adherence to human values represented by Fitrah (innate nature) and which may vary according to circumstances.

Islam, Faith, and Prohibitions

Shahrur distinguishes between Islam and Iman (faith), linking human values to prohibitions (which he specifies as fourteen prohibitions) and divine commands and prohibitions (which are ten). He sees Islam as the general framework, while Iman is a deeper degree of commitment. He also defines the antithesis of Islam as "criminality," which differs from atheism.

Chapter Two: Who are the Believers?

The second chapter addresses a complementary question: "Who are the Believers?" Here, Shahrur makes a nuanced distinction between the concepts of Islam and Iman.

The Difference between a Muslim and a Believer

According to Shahrur's reading, a Muslim is one who follows any religion based on belief in God, the Last Day, and righteous action, whereas a Believer (Mu'min) is specifically one who follows the Prophet Muhammad's message. The believers are, thus, a particular group within the broader circle of Islam.

This distinction redefines the relationship between Islam and other religions, placing all monotheistic religions under the umbrella of a single Islam while acknowledging the specificity of the Muhammadan message for the believers.

Freedom of Belief and Free Faith

Shahrur strongly advocates for personal freedom of belief, asserting that Islam is a voluntary religion based on free faith, not coercion. This principle leads him to reject any form of religious coercion, whether individual or institutional.

Chapter Three: No Compulsion in Religion

Shahrur devotes an entire chapter to the topic of "No Compulsion in Religion," one of the most controversial sections of the book.

Separating Religion from Authority

Shahrur presents a radical perspective on the relationship between religion and the state, arguing that religion possesses no means of coercion, while the state does. This approach clearly separates religious authority from state authority:

Religion prohibits, commands, and forbids, but does not prevent. The reference for religious authority is conscience, and its domain is broader than that of law.
The State commands, forbids, and prevents, but does not prohibit. The reference for state authority is law.
Religion can be separated from political authority, but it cannot be separated from society.

The Forbidden (Haram) and the Permissible (Halal)

Shahrur differentiates between "Haram" (forbidden) and "Halal" (permissible) in terms of their nature:

Haram: What is defined by religion. It is universal, eternal, and unchangeable.
Halal: What is regulated by law. It is temporal and evolutionary.

The Wise Revelation (Al-Tanzil Al-Hakim) concluded the list of prohibitions, whereas the Prophetic Sunnah practiced the regulation of the permissible (civil law) and does not bear the characteristic of eternal universality.

Critique of the Concept of "Second Revelation" and the Infallibility of Imams

Shahrur goes as far as denying what is termed the "Second Revelation" (i.e., the Sunnah as a form of revelation) and denying the infallibility of Imams. In his view, the Prophetic Sunnah is not revelation in the Quranic sense, nor does it possess the attribute of infallibility or eternal universality. This stance places Shahrur in opposition to traditional Sunni trends, which consider the Sunnah an independent legislative source, as well as Shia trends that believe in the infallibility of the Imams.

Chapter Four: Citizenship and Loyalty to Islam

The fourth and final chapter deals with the topics of "Citizenship and Loyalty to Islam," which are fundamental concepts in Shahrur's intellectual project.

Citizenship as an Islamic Value

Shahrur argues that citizenship is not an alien concept to Islam but is an inherent Islamic value. Citizenship means belonging to a homeland and a state, and coexisting with others on the basis of shared citizenship, regardless of religion or sect.

Religious Loyalty and National Loyalty

Shahrur distinguishes between two types of loyalty:

Religious Loyalty: A spiritual loyalty related to one's relationship with God and faith.
National Loyalty: A civic loyalty related to belonging to a state and society.

Shahrur seeks to harmonize these two loyalties, ensuring that loyalty to religion does not conflict with loyalty to the homeland, and vice versa.

The Established Foundations of Islam

Shahrur emphasizes that the book addresses the established foundations of Islam: faith, citizenship, and religious loyalty. These foundations, in his view, form the framework upon which a contemporary Islamic society can be built, consistent with contemporary values and the core purposes of the religion.

Core Ideas and Visions in the Book

Religion and Authority
One of the defining features of Shahrur's book is his vision of the relationship between religion and authority. Religion, in his view, possesses no mechanism for coercion; the state does. This implies that coercion in religious matters is illegitimate, as religion is based on free faith and conscious choice. The state's responsibility is to regulate civic and legal affairs, not to impose religious doctrines.
Islam as a Religion of Mercy and Tolerance
In presenting his book, Shahrur affirms that Islam is a religion of mercy and tolerance, not a religion of violence, killing, and destruction. Through this broad perspective on religion, every human being can live their humanity wherever they are, achieving social stability. This vision places Islam within a universal human context, far from stereotypes linking it to violence or extremism.
Reason as a Source of Religious Knowledge
In the book's introduction, Shahrur indicates his direct recourse to the Quran, engaging with it through reason and searching for material evidence that supports what reason perceives. The Quran, in his view, contains texts that address the intellect to illuminate its path in life and bring it out of narrowness into the broad horizon of knowledge.
Critique of the Intellectual Heritage
Shahrur levels sharp criticism at the Islamic intellectual heritage, arguing that the widespread intellectual chaos in reading and applying Islam necessitates setting the heritage aside and starting from the foundational text of the religion. He believes that Muslims have been afflicted with intellectual laziness, delegating thinking to others and accepting what they say without discussion, because their traditional thought is based on hearsay trust rather than rational evidence.
Renewing the Understanding of the Prophet's ﷺ Role
Shahrur seeks to clarify the role of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, claiming that the obligation to obey the Prophet’s Sunnah was specific to his time and did not extend beyond it. This position radically differs from the traditional view that considers the Prophetic Sunnah a universally binding legislative source for all times and places.

Critique of the Book and Positions of Opponents

The book "Islam and Man" sparked widespread debate in religious and intellectual circles and faced multiple critiques:

Transgressing the Juristic Consensus
Critics argue that Shahrur exceeds the juristic consensus (Ijma') established by Muslims over the centuries, interpreting Quranic texts in a manner that departs from the agreed-upon meaning.
Undermining the Prophetic Sunnah
Some accused Shahrur of undermining the Prophetic Sunnah and deeming it non-binding, which contradicts Quranic texts commanding obedience to the Prophet ﷺ.
Confusing Concepts
Some critics believe Shahrur confuses religious and political concepts, separating religion and authority in a way inconsistent with the nature of Islam as a comprehensive religion for life.
Repetition of Previous Ideas
It is noted that the book's content appears to be a compilation of ideas previously published in other works by Dr. Shahrur, a point the author himself acknowledges in his introduction, referring to his book as a "compilation of what was mentioned in his other books."
Lack of Specialized Juristic Expertise
Some criticized that Shahrur, being a civil engineer and not a scholar of Sharia or Islamic theology, delves into intricate religious issues without possessing the necessary methodological tools.

Significance of the Book and Its Impact

Despite the criticisms leveled against it, the book represents a significant milestone in contemporary Islamic thought for the following reasons:

Renewing Religious Discourse
The book represents a serious attempt to renew religious discourse and break free from the intellectual stagnation it has suffered over the centuries.
Reconciling Islam with Modern Values
The book seeks to reconcile Islam with modern values like freedom, citizenship, and human rights, making it relevant to contemporary concerns.
Returning to the Quranic Text
The book calls for a return to the Quranic text itself, away from jurisprudential heritage that may have deviated from the Quranic intent.
International Recognition
Winning the Sheikh Zayed Book Award grants the book weight and value, reflecting international recognition of the importance of the intellectual project it represents.
Rediscovering Texts
As the judging committee for the Sheikh Zayed Book Award noted, the book represents "a form of rediscovering texts in light of new concepts, such as freedom, citizenship, faith, and Islam, away from the concept of conflict and differences that led to distorted perceptions of Islam."

Conclusion

Muhammad Shahrur's "Islam and Man: From the Results of Contemporary Reading" presents a reformist vision of the Islamic religion, based on a return to the Quranic text, adopting the methodology of Tarteel and rejecting synonymy, separating religion from authority, and emphasizing the values of freedom, citizenship, and tolerance.

The book is undoubtedly controversial, but it represents a serious attempt to confront the intellectual challenges facing Muslims in the modern era and to present an image of Islam that aligns with contemporary requirements and shared human values. Despite the criticisms it has faced, it remains an important work worthy of reading and discussion, as it opens new horizons for understanding religious texts and calls for transcending the intellectual stagnation affecting Islamic thought.

The book also reminds us that Islam, at its core, is a religion of mercy and tolerance, and that humanity is the highest value that religion seeks to achieve in people's lives, whether they are Muslims or non-Muslims. This is the most important lesson to be gleaned from reading this controversial yet significant book

For the original summary in Arabic