The Theory of Evolution and the Origin of Man

The Theory of Evolution and the Origin of Man by Salama Moussa

Intellectual Background and Historical Context

Cultural Formation of Salama Moussa (1887–1958):

Born in the Egyptian village of Bahnbay, Moussa’s worldview was shaped by several key experiences:

European Travels (1906–1910): During his years in France and England, he absorbed materialist philosophy, read Darwin, Marx, and Voltaire, and joined the Fabian Society, which inspired his embrace of gradual social evolution.
The Arab Enlightenment Movement: He was influenced by the Lebanese intellectuals Shibli Shumayyil and Farah Antun, who called for separating religion from science and saw evolution as a tool for modernizing Arab societies.

The Timing of the Book (1925): Moussa published his work during a turbulent era marked by:

Fierce debates between religious institutions and secular elites in Egypt.
The global peak of Darwinism, a century after On the Origin of Species.
The collapse of the Ottoman Caliphate, which triggered wide-ranging debates about Arab identity.

Theoretical Framework of Evolution: Core Principles and Concepts

Philosophical and Scientific Foundations

Materialism as Method: Moussa rejected metaphysical explanations for human origins, grounding his account instead in:
- A single material origin: All living beings arose from a primordial cell shaped over billions of years by physical forces such as air, heat, and moisture.
- Chance and necessity: Evolution combines randomness (genetic mutations) with fixed natural laws (natural selection).
Critique of Traditional Dualisms:
- Human/Animal: Differences are of degree, not of kind, particularly in mental faculties.
- Matter/Spirit: The mind is a product of brain evolution, not a separate entity.

Scientific Mechanisms of Evolution

Natural Selection: Illustrated through vivid examples:
- Lions and gazelles: the swiftest lions and most alert gazelles survive, while the weak perish.
- Evolution of organs: sebaceous glands in reptiles transformed into mammary glands in mammals; the presence of five pairs of embryonic nipples in humans signals a shared evolutionary past.
Environmental Adaptation:
- Human hair loss: explained by the use of fire and caves, which eliminated the need for thick fur.
- Dense fur in Arctic animals (e.g., polar bears) versus their warm-climate counterparts.

Human Evolution: From Apes to Homo sapiens

Stages of Human Development in the Book

Stage	Characteristics	Evidence
Great Apes	Gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan (tailless)	Comparative anatomy of skulls and skeletons
Early Humans	Use of primitive tools, cave dwelling	Fossils, stone tools
Modern Humans	Emergence of language, art, social organization	Cave paintings, advanced tools, remains of communities

Key Anatomical Arguments

Skeleton:
- Upright gait evolved to support a heavier skull.
- Limb bones show close resemblance to great apes.
Brain:
- Gradual enlargement driven by social complexity.
- Structural similarities in emotional centers between humans and animals.

Evolution of Mind and Instincts

Continuity of Behavior:

Maternal care: female apes adopt orphans and grieve deeply when losing offspring.
Loyalty: dogs lick their owner’s hand even under abuse.

Quantitative, not Qualitative, Differences:

Animals use tools (apes cracking nuts).
Animals perceive beauty (bird mating rituals based on color).

The Origins of Human Society: Religion, Language, and Morality

Religion as an Evolutionary Phenomenon

The Birth of the Idea of God:
- Primitive phase: fear of nature (volcanoes, storms) gave rise to imagined hidden powers.
- Gradual evolution: these forces became gods, and eventually a single God in complex societies.
Social Function:
- Regulating behavior through promises of reward and punishment.
- Explaining the unknown before the rise of science.

The Evolution of Language and Clothing

Language: From gestures and simple sounds to symbolic, abstract speech. Cooperation in hunting and farming drove linguistic development.
Clothing: From leaves and animal skins to weaving and textiles, with climate dictating variations (heavy clothing in colder regions).

Intellectual Debate and Criticism

Religious and Political Backlash

Accusations of Westernization: Some Islamists saw the book as a “project to strip the nation of its traditions” in the wake of the caliphate’s fall.
Charges of Atheism: Especially over the chapter on the “Origin of the Idea of God.”

Scientific Responses

Over-Simplification: Critics argued Moussa reduced complex theories to overly simple explanations.
Beyond Darwin: While Darwin confined evolution to biology, Moussa extended it to society and religion.

Unique Contributions of the Book

Translation and Simplification: Moussa explained terms like “natural selection” in everyday language (e.g., “survival of the fittest”), using Arab environmental examples such as deserts and local animals.
Linking Evolution to Intellectual Liberation:
- Advocated rationalism in education.
- Connected acceptance of evolution with social progress in the Arab world.

Cultural Legacy and Influence

Impact on Arab Thought

Popularizing Scientific Ideas: The first Arabic book to introduce Darwinism to general readers, not just elites.
Inspiration: Influenced a generation of secular writers, including Farah Antun.

Critical Heritage

Remains a foundational reference in studying the history of secularism in Egypt.

Publication History

Edition	Year	Publisher	Notes
First	1925	Not listed	Sparked major controversy
Hindawi	2011	Hindawi Foundation	Free legal edition
Bayt al-Yasmin	2018	Bayt al-Yasmin Publishing	272 pages, ISBN 9789778171488
Digital	2023	Available on Abjjad & iTunes	$2.99

Limits of the Theory in Light of Modern Science

Strengths:

Anticipated the importance of heredity (before the discovery of DNA).
Stressed the unity of life (humans share 98% of genes with chimpanzees).

Weaknesses:

Neglected the role of “genetic drift” in evolution.
Relied partly on Lamarckism (inheritance of acquired traits), later disproven by genetics.

Conclusion: The Future of Humanity in Moussa’s Vision

Self-Directed Evolution: With advances in medicine, humans will guide their own evolution instead of waiting on nature.
Risk of Extinction: Warned of nuclear war as an existential threat.
Humanist Message:
- Advocated the unity of humankind: “The collective mind is what makes us human.”
- Linked scientific progress with social justice, seeing socialism as an evolutionary stage.

Salama Moussa’s The Theory of Evolution and the Origin of Man remains a landmark document of Arab modernity—capturing the tension between rationalism and tradition, and marking one of the earliest efforts to embed modern science in a culture still negotiating its place between past and future.

For the original summary in Arabic