Today and Tomorrow - Salama Moussa

“Today and Tomorrow” by Salama Moussa: A Vision of Modernization and Civilizational Struggle

Historical and Intellectual Context

Published in 1928, Today and Tomorrow appeared at the height of Egypt’s and the Arab world’s intellectual awakening. Salama Moussa (1887–1958), one of the most influential figures of the Arab Enlightenment and a leading advocate of Westernization, used the book to articulate a sweeping vision for cultural and social reform.

The volume compiles essays written between 1910 and 1926, reflecting Moussa’s sharp critique of the East and his conviction that emulating the West was the only viable path to progress.

Deeply influenced by Darwin, Marx, and Voltaire during his years in Europe (1906–1910), Moussa framed the work as a manifesto of Egyptian socialism and modernization.

Core Ideas

1. Civilizational Dualism: The Backward East vs. the Advanced West

Critique of the East: Moussa portrayed the Arab world as stagnant, weighed down by intellectual inertia, social despotism, and the suppression of women. He argued that superstition and religious dogma shackled free thought.
Admiration for the West: In contrast, he idealized Europe as the pinnacle of human civilization, credited to its rationalism and emancipation from religious and traditional constraints. He urged: “Let us turn our faces toward Europe and align our philosophy with its philosophy.”

2. Culture as a Two-Way Act

Moussa defined culture as both limitless intellectual exploration and the creation of new visions to share with others. In his view, the intellectual was a bridge between knowledge and social reform.

3. Women’s Liberation as the Condition for Renaissance

He linked the backwardness of Eastern societies to the confinement of women within the “prison of customs and traditions.” He called for:

Women’s access to education
The abolition of polygamy
Women’s participation in public life

4. Rationalism and Science as Substitutes for Religion

Moussa advocated:

Replacing religion with science as a framework for understanding the universe
Rejecting metaphysics and rigid religious interpretations, considering religion a “human construct subject to evolution”
Adopting Darwin’s theory of evolution as the guiding principle for human and social development

5. Socialism as an Economic and Social Solution

His vision for socialism sought to eliminate class divisions. Influences included:

The British Fabian Society, which he encountered during his time in London
The writings of Karl Marx, though he distanced himself from revolutionary violence

Proposed Mechanisms for Change

1. A Break with Arab Heritage

Moussa urged abandoning classical Arabic, which he dismissed as stagnant, in favor of Egyptian colloquial Arabic or even Latin script.
He promoted a Pharaonic identity for Egypt rather than an Arab-Islamic one.

2. Education as a Tool of Liberation

He called for secular schools that fostered critical thinking.
He advocated adopting Western curricula in science and philosophy.

3. Art as the Elevation of Human Life

In his essay “The Art of Living” (published outside this book but reflecting his philosophy), Moussa wrote:

“The animal lives on the biological level, but the human being lives on the cultural, artistic, and civil level.”
He urged turning everyday life into an aesthetic experience—whether through home decoration or elegant dress—as an expression of human refinement.

Controversies and Criticism

1. Accusations of Blind Westernization

Opponents, particularly conservatives and nationalists, condemned the book as:

A “document of Westernization” that severed ties with authentic identity
An uncritical glorification of the West that ignored its colonial domination of the East

2. Internal Contradictions

Elitism: Though an advocate of socialism, Moussa’s work primarily addressed intellectual elites.
Linguistic Paradox: Despite calling for the abandonment of classical Arabic, he wrote all his works in it.

3. Readers’ and Critics’ Views

On platforms like Goodreads, the book holds a modest three-star rating. Some praised its boldness, while others dismissed its analysis of the West as superficial.

Historical Impact and Intellectual Legacy

1. Influence on the Egyptian Enlightenment

The book shaped Egypt’s Westernist current, influencing figures such as Taha Hussein and Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid.
It inspired women’s liberation movements in Egypt during the 1930s.

2. Moussa’s Contested Legacy

Recognized as the first to openly call for socialism in the Arab world.
Nobel laureate Naguib Mahfouz, his student, was deeply influenced by Moussa’s ideas, even though he later diverged from them.

3. Editions of the Book

First edition: 1928 (210 pages)
Recent editions: Hindawi (2019), Al-Mashriq Digital Library (2021)

Contemporary Appraisal

Nearly a century after its publication, Today and Tomorrow still poses pressing questions:

Strengths: It broke taboos by critiquing religious and social dogmas, and advanced secular thought.
Weaknesses: It neglected the particularities of Eastern cultures and adopted a one-dimensional view of progress.

Modern critical perspective: Moussa’s calls for rationalism and social justice remain valuable, but his absolute claims about Western superiority require reevaluation.

The book ends with Moussa’s stark conclusion: “We stand at a crossroads: either we move toward the civilized West, or we remain trapped in our backward East.”

Book Contents

Main Theme	Subtopics	Examples from the Text
Social Critique	Status of women – class divisions – decline	“We asked woman to shed the cloak of slavery.”
Proposed Solutions	Westernization – rationalism – socialism	“Let us turn our faces toward Europe.”
Philosophical Foundations	Secularism – materialism – evolution	“Religion is a human construct.”