The Struggle of Thebes by Naguib Mahfouz

“The Struggle of Thebes” by Naguib Mahfouz:

A Historical Epic of Resistance and Hope

Historical and Literary Context

The Struggle of Thebes (1944) is the third novel in Naguib Mahfouz’s historical trilogy, following Khufu’s Wisdom (1939) and Rhadopis of Nubia (1943). Set in Pharaonic Egypt during the Hyksos occupation of northern Egypt, it depicts the determined fight of the people of Thebes (southern Egypt) to reclaim their land. Written early in Mahfouz’s career, it uses history as a mirror for resisting British colonial rule in his time, embodying the belief that “a dormant people still carry within them the seeds of revolution.” The novel was recognized by Spain’s El Mundo newspaper as one of the 20th century’s most significant works.

Plot: The Clash Between Freedom and Oppression
The novel begins with a threatening message from the Hyksos king “Apophis” to the Egyptian ruler of Thebes, “Seqenenre Tao,” demanding:

The killing of the sacred hippos of the Nile,
The prohibition of wearing the Northern Crown (symbol of sovereignty),
The construction of a temple for “Set” (the Hyksos deity).

These demands insult Egyptian dignity, sparking a revolution. Seqenenre Tao refuses submission and is killed in an unequal battle, leaving his son “Kamose” and later his grandson “Ahmose” to lead the army. The novel follows the stages of struggle—from secret military preparations, building ships and weapons, to the fierce battles that eventually expel the Hyksos—highlighting Mahfouz’s insight: “War, if not fought for a worthy cause, becomes mere slaughter.”

Characters: Heroism and Human Conflict

A. Ahmose: The Sacrificing Hero
He is the liberator and inspirational leader, yet Mahfouz deepens his character with inner conflict. Ahmose falls in love with “Nefret,” the Hyksos princess, forcing him to suppress his feelings for the sake of a greater cause, believing that “oppression wounds all just souls.”

B. Women as Symbols of Resilience

Teti Sheri: Ahmose’s grandmother, a wise figure who fuels the revolutionary spirit among soldiers, urging them, “Let those who live among us live with honor, and let those who die, die with dignity.”
Nefret: The enemy’s daughter, representing a humanity that transcends hostility.
Nebetta: A local woman symbolizing the role of women in resistance through training men and supplying the army.

C. The Hyksos: Portraits of the Colonizer
Mahfouz portrays the Hyksos as a brutal occupying force exploiting Egypt’s wealth, a clear parallel to British colonial rule.

Artistic Construction: Merging History and Literature

A. History as Dramatic Framework
Mahfouz grounds the novel in documented events:

The Hyksos invasion (~1650 BCE),
The battle to liberate Avaris (the Hyksos capital in the Delta),
yet adds dramatic elements such as the cross-boundary love story to breathe life into the narrative.

B. Vivid Depiction of Pharaonic Civilization
The novel revives the era with rich details:

Temple scenes (e.g., at the Temple of Amun where Seqenenre Tao declares the revolution),
Daily life rituals,
Military organization (ships, war chariots),
making history “pulse through the pages.”

C. Language: Majestic Yet Fluid
Mahfouz uses a classical yet accessible style befitting an epic, as in his description of the army’s mobilization:

“The drums of departure sounded, the army formed in ranks, and the fleet raised its anchors.”

Symbolic and National Dimensions

A. Reflections on Contemporary Reality
Written during British occupation (1882–1952), Mahfouz envisioned the liberation of Thebes as a prophecy of Egypt’s freedom, stating:

“I wanted to say that the people who liberated themselves once can do it again.”
This vision parallels Tawfiq al-Hakim’s Return of the Spirit (1931), which connects national revival to a unifying leader.

B. Philosophy of Revolution and Identity
The novel poses profound questions:

When will the oppressed rise?
How does a leader balance emotion with duty?
What is the limit of tolerance toward occupiers?

It answers with clarity: dignity is the driving force, and sacrifice is its price.

Place in Mahfouz’s Literary Journey

Historical Phase: The Struggle of Thebes marks the peak of Mahfouz’s historical novels before he shifted to realism in Cairo Modern (1945).
Pathway to Global Recognition: The novel showcases Mahfouz’s ability to transform local history into a universal human lesson, paving the way to his Nobel Prize in 1988.
Narrative Experimentation: Mahfouz blends traditional storytelling with stream-of-consciousness techniques to portray Ahmose’s inner turmoil between love and duty.

A Testament to Renewed Hope

The Struggle of Thebes is not just a historical novel but a manifesto of resistance and a monument to the indomitable spirit of a people. Through Ahmose, Mahfouz affirms that true heroism lies not only in military victory but in the sacrifice of the self for the collective. More than 80 years after its publication, the novel still resonates as a reminder that: